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ATLAS Collaboration(Aad, G. et al), Amos, K. R., Aparisi Pozo, J. A., Bailey, A. J., Cabrera Urban, S., Cardillo, F., et al. (2022). Operation and performance of the ATLAS semiconductor tracker in LHC Run 2. J. Instrum., 17(1), P01013–56pp.
Abstract: The semiconductor tracker (SCT) is one of the tracking systems for charged particles in the ATLAS detector. It consists of 4088 silicon strip sensor modules. During Run 2 (2015-2018) the Large Hadron Collider delivered an integrated luminosity of 156 fb(-1) to the ATLAS experiment at a centre-of-mass proton-proton collision energy of 13 TeV. The instantaneous luminosity and pile-up conditions were far in excess of those assumed in the original design of the SCT detector. Due to improvements to the data acquisition system, the SCT operated stably throughout Run 2. It was available for 99.9% of the integrated luminosity and achieved a data-quality efficiency of 99.85%. Detailed studies have been made of the leakage current in SCT modules and the evolution of the full depletion voltage, which are used to study the impact of radiation damage to the modules. '
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Mandic, I., Cindro, V., Debevc, J., Gorisek, A., Hiti, B., Kramberger, G., et al. (2022). Study of neutron irradiation effects in Depleted CMOS detector structures. J. Instrum., 17(3), P03030–13pp.
Abstract: In this paper the results of Edge-TCT and I-V measurements with passive test structures made in LFoundry 150 nm HV-CMOS process on p-type substrates with different initial resistivities ranging from 0.5 to 3 k Omega cm are presented. Samples were irradiated with reactor neutrons up to a fluence of 2.10(15) n(eq)/cm(2). The depletion depth was measured with Edge-TCT. The effective space charge concentration N-eff was estimated from the dependence of the depletion depth on bias voltage and studied as a function of neutron fluence. The dependence of N-eff on fluence changes with initial acceptor concentration in agreement with other measurements with p-type silicon. A long term accelerated annealing study of N-eff and detector current up to 1280 minutes at 60 degrees C was made. It was found that N-eff and current in reverse biased detector behave as expected for irradiated silicon.
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T2K Collaboration(Abe, K. et al), Antonova, M., Cervera-Villanueva, A., Molina Bueno, L., & Novella, P. (2022). Scintillator ageing of the T2K near detectors fro 2010 to 2021. J. Instrum., 17(10), P10028–36pp.
Abstract: The T2K experiment widely uses plastic scintillator as a target for neutrino interactions and an active medium for the measurement of charged particles produced in neutrino interactions at its near detector complex. Over 10 years of operation the measured light yield recorded by the scintillator based subsystems has been observed to degrade by 0.9-2.2% per year. Extrapolation of the degradation rate through to 2040 indicates the recorded light yield should remain above the lower threshold used by the current reconstruction algorithms for all subsystems. This will allow the near detectors to continue contributing to important physics measurements during the T2K-II and Hyper-Kamiokande eras. Additionally, work to disentangle the degradation of the plastic scintillator and wavelength shifting fibres shows that the reduction in light yield can be attributed to the ageing of the plastic scintillator. The long component of the attenuation length of the wavelength shifting fibres was observed to degrade by 1.3-5.4% per year, while the short component of the attenuation length did not show any conclusive degradation.
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Unno, Y. et al, Bernabeu, J., Lacasta, C., Solaz, C., & Soldevila, U. (2023). Specifications and pre-production of n plus -in-p large-format strip sensors fabricated in 6-inch silicon wafers, ATLAS18, for the Inner Tracker of the ATLAS Detector for High-Luminosity Large Hadron Collider. J. Instrum., 18(3), T03008–29pp.
Abstract: The ATLAS experiment is constructing new all-silicon inner tracking system for HL-LHC. The strip detectors cover the radial extent of 40 to 100 cm. A new approach is adopted to use p-type silicon material, making the readout in n+-strips, so-called n+-in-p sensors. This allows for enhanced radiation tolerance against an order of magnitude higher particle fluence compared to the LHC. To cope with varying hit rates and occupancies as a function of radial distance, there are two barrel sensor types, the short strips (SS) for the inner 2 and the long strips (LS) for the outer 2 barrel cylinders, respectively. The barrel sensors exhibit a square, 9.8 x 9.8 cm2, geometry, the largest possible sensor area from a 6-inch wafer. The strips are laid out in parallel with a strip pitch of 75.5 μm and 4 or 2 rows of strip segments. The strips are AC-coupled and biased via polysilicon resistors. The endcap sensors employ a “stereo-annulus” geometry exhibiting a skewed-trapezoid shapes with circular edges. They are designed in 6 unique shapes, R0 to R5, corresponding to progressively increasing radial extents and which allows them to fit within the petal geometry and the 6-inch wafer maximally. The strips are in fan-out geometry with an in-built rotation angle, with a mean pitch of approximately 75 μm and 4 or 2 rows of strip segments. The eight sensor types are labeled as ATLAS18xx where xx stands for SS, LS, and R0 to R5. According to the mechanical and electrical specifications, CAD files for wafer processing were laid out, following the successful designs of prototype barrel and endcap sensors, together with a number of optimizations. A pre-production was carried out prior to the full production of the wafers. The quality of the sensors is reviewed and judged excellent through the test results carried out by vendor. These sensors are used for establishing acceptance procedures and to evaluate their performance in the ATLAS collaboration, and subsequently for pre-production of strip modules and stave and petal structures.
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Agaras, M. N. et al, & Fiorini, L. (2023). Laser calibration of the ATLAS Tile Calorimeter during LHC Run 2. J. Instrum., 18(6), P06023–35pp.
Abstract: This article reports the laser calibration of the hadronic Tile Calorimeter of the ATLAS experiment in the LHC Run 2 data campaign. The upgraded Laser II calibration system is described. The system was commissioned during the first LHC Long Shutdown, exhibiting a stability better than 0.8% for the laser light monitoring. The methods employed to derive the detector calibration factors with data from the laser calibration runs are also detailed. These allowed to correct for the response fluctuations of the 9852 photomultiplier tubes of the Tile Calorimeter with a total uncertainty of 0.5% plus a luminosity-dependent sub-dominant term. Finally, we report the regular monitoring and performance studies using laser events in both standalone runs and during proton collisions. These studies include channel timing and quality inspection, and photomultiplier linearity and response dependence on anode current.
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Andreotti, M. et al, Cervera-Villanueva, A., Garcia-Peris, M. a., Martin-Albo, J., Querol, M., Rocabado, J., et al. (2024). Cryogenic characterization of Hamamatsu HWB MPPCs for the DUNE photon detection system. J. Instrum., 19(1), T01007–27pp.
Abstract: The Deep Underground Neutrino Experiment (DUNE) is a next generation experiment aimed to study neutrino oscillation. Its long-baseline configuration will exploit a Near Detector (ND) and a Far Detector (FD) located at a distance of similar to 1300 km. The FD will consist of four Liquid Argon Time Projection Chamber (LAr TPC) modules. A Photon Detection System (PDS) will be used to detect the scintillation light produced inside the detector after neutrino interactions. The PDS will be based on light collectors coupled to Silicon Photomultipliers (SiPMs). Different photosensor technologies have been proposed and produced in order to identify the best samples to fullfill the experiment requirements. In this paper, we present the procedure and results of a validation campaign for the Hole Wire Bonding (HWB) MPPCs samples produced by Hamamatsu Photonics K.K. (HPK) for the DUNE experiment, referring to them as 'SiPMs'. The protocol for a characterization at cryogenic temperature (77 K) is reported. We present the down-selection criteria and the results obtained during the selection campaign undertaken, along with a study of the main sources of noise of the SiPMs including the investigation of a newly observed phenomenon in this field.
Keywords: Cryogenic detectors; Photon detectors for UV, visible and IR photons (solid-state); Photon detectors for UV, visible and IR photons (solid-state) (PIN diodes, APDs, Si-PMTs, G-APDs, CCDs, EBCCDs, EMCCDs, CMOS imagers, etc)
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Boronat, M., Marinas, C., Frey, A., Garcia, I., Schwenker, B., Vos, M., et al. (2015). Physical Limitations to the Spatial Resolution of Solid-State Detectors. IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci., 62(1), 381–386.
Abstract: In this paper we explore the effect of delta-ray emission and fluctuations in the signal deposition on the detection of charged particles in silicon-based detectors. We show that these two effects ultimately limit the resolution that can be achieved by interpolation of the signal in finely segmented position-sensitive solid-state devices.
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