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Llosa, G. (2015). Recent developments in photodetection for medical applications. Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. A, 787, 353–357.
Abstract: The use of the most advanced technology in medical imaging results in the development of high performance detectors that can significantly improve the performance of the medical devices employed in hospitals. Scintillator crystals coupled to photodetectors remain to be essential detectors in terms of performance and cost for medical imaging applications in different imaging modalities. Recent advances in photodetectors result in an increase of the performance of the medical scanners. Solid state detectors can provide substantial performance improvement, but are more complex to integrate into clinical detectors due mainly to their higher cost. Solid state photodetectors (APDs, SiPMs) have made new detector concepts possible and have led to improvements in different imaging modalities. Recent advances in detectors for medical imaging are revised.
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Llosa, G., Trovato, M., Barrio, J., Etxebeste, A., Muñoz, E., Lacasta, C., et al. (2016). First Images of a Three-layer compton Telescope prototype for Treatment Monitoring in hadron Therapy. Front. Oncol., 6, 14–6pp.
Abstract: A Compton telescope for dose monitoring in hadron therapy is under development at IFIC. The system consists of three layers of LaBr3 crystals coupled to silicon photomulti-plier arrays. Na-22 sources have been successfully imaged reconstructing the data with an ML-EM code. Calibration and temperature stabilization are necessary for the prototype operation at low coincidence rates. A spatial resolution of 7.8 mm FWHM has been obtained in the first imaging tests.
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Muñoz, E., Barrientos, L., Bernabeu, J., Borja-Lloret, M., Llosa, G., Ros, A., et al. (2020). A spectral reconstruction algorithm for two-plane Compton cameras. Phys. Med. Biol., 65(2), 025011–17pp.
Abstract: One factor limiting the current applicability extent of hadron therapy is the lack of a reliable method for real time treatment monitoring. The use of Compton imaging systems as monitors requires the correct reconstruction of the distribution of prompt gamma productions during patient irradiation. In order to extract the maximum information from all the measurable events, we implemented a spectral reconstruction method that assigns to all events a probability of being either partial or total energy depositions. The method, implemented in a list-mode maximum likelihood expectation maximization algorithm, generates a four dimensional image in the joint spatial-spectral domain, in which the voxels containing the emission positions and energies are obtained. The analytical model used for the system response function is also employed to derive an analytical expression for the sensitivity, which is calculated via Monte Carlo integration. The performance of the method is evaluated through reconstruction of various experimental and simulated sources with different spatial and energy distributions. The results show that the proposed method can recover the spectral and spatial information simultaneously, but only under the assumption of ideal measurements. The analysis of the Monte Carlo simulations has led to the identification of two important degradation sources: the mispositioning of the gamma interaction point and the missing energy recorded in the interaction. Both factors are related to the high energy transferred to the recoil electrons, which can travel far from the interaction point and even escape the detector. These effects prevent the direct application of the current method in more realistic scenarios. Nevertheless, experimental point-like sources have been accurately reconstructed and the spatial distributions and spectral emission of complex simulated phantoms can be identified.
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Roser, J., Muñoz, E., Barrientos, L., Barrio, J., Bernabeu, J., Borja-Lloret, M., et al. (2020). Image reconstruction for a multi-layer Compton telescope: an analytical model for three interaction events. Phys. Med. Biol., 65(14), 145005–17pp.
Abstract: Compton Cameras are electronically collimated photon imagers suitable for sub-MeV to few MeV gamma-ray detection. Such features are desirable to enablein vivorange verification in hadron therapy, through the detection of secondary Prompt Gammas. A major concern with this technique is the poor image quality obtained when the incoming gamma-ray energy is unknown. Compton Cameras with more than two detector planes (multi-layer Compton Cameras) have been proposed as a solution, given that these devices incorporate more signal sequences of interactions to the conventional two interaction events. In particular, three interaction events convey more spectral information as they allow inferring directly the incident gamma-ray energy. A three-layer Compton Telescope based on continuous Lanthanum (III) Bromide crystals coupled to Silicon Photomultipliers is being developed at the IRIS group of IFIC-Valencia. In a previous work we proposed a spectral reconstruction algorithm for two interaction events based on an analytical model for the formation of the signal. To fully exploit the capabilities of our prototype, we present here an extension of the model for three interaction events. Analytical expressions of the sensitivity and the System Matrix are derived and validated against Monte Carlo simulations. Implemented in a List Mode Maximum Likelihood Expectation Maximization algorithm, the proposed model allows us to obtain four-dimensional (energy and position) images by using exclusively three interaction events. We are able to recover the correct spectrum and spatial distribution of gamma-ray sources when ideal data are employed. However, the uncertainties associated to experimental measurements result in a degradation when real data from complex structures are employed. Incorrect estimation of the incident gamma-ray interaction positions, and missing deposited energy associated with escaping secondaries, have been identified as the causes of such degradation by means of a detailed Monte Carlo study. As expected, our current experimental resolution and efficiency to three interaction events prevents us from correctly recovering complex structures of radioactive sources. However, given the better spectral information conveyed by three interaction events, we expect an improvement of the image quality of conventional Compton imaging when including such events. In this regard, future development includes the incorporation of the model assessed in this work to the two interaction events model in order to allow using simultaneously two and three interaction events in the image reconstruction.
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Roser, J., Barrientos, L., Bernabeu, J., Borja-Lloret, M., Muñoz, E., Ros, A., et al. (2022). Joint image reconstruction algorithm in Compton cameras. Phys. Med. Biol., 67(15), 155009–15pp.
Abstract: Objective. To demonstrate the benefits of using an joint image reconstruction algorithm based on the List Mode Maximum Likelihood Expectation Maximization that combines events measured in different channels of information of a Compton camera. Approach. Both simulations and experimental data are employed to show the algorithm performance. Main results. The obtained joint images present improved image quality and yield better estimates of displacements of high-energy gamma-ray emitting sources. The algorithm also provides images that are more stable than any individual channel against the noisy convergence that characterizes Maximum Likelihood based algorithms. Significance. The joint reconstruction algorithm can improve the quality and robustness of Compton camera images. It also has high versatility, as it can be easily adapted to any Compton camera geometry. It is thus expected to represent an important step in the optimization of Compton camera imaging.
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Viegas, R., Roser, J., Barrientos, L., Borja-Lloret, M., Casaña, J. V., Lopez, J. G., et al. (2023). Characterization of a Compton camera based on the TOFPET2 ASIC. Radiat. Phys. Chem., 202, 110507–11pp.
Abstract: The use of Compton cameras for medical imaging and its interest as a hadron therapy treatment monitoring has increased in the last decade with the development of silicon photomultipliers. MACACOp is a Compton camera prototype designed and assembled at the IRIS group of IFIC-Valencia. This Compton camera is based on monolithic Lanthanum (III) Bromide crystals and silicon photomultipliers, and employs the novel TOFPET2 ASIC as readout electronics. This system emerged as an alternative to MACACO II prototype, with the aim of improving its limited time resolution. To test the performance of the ASIC in a Compton camera setup, the prototype was characterized, both in laboratory and in-beam. A time resolution of 1.5 ns was obtained after time corrections, which improves greatly the performance of the MACACO II. Moreover, the results obtained at high photon energies demonstrate the ability of the system to obtain 1 mm displacements of the reconstructed spots. The results reinforce the potential of the system as a monitoring device for hadron therapy.
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Garonna, A., Amaldi, U., Bonomi, R., Campo, D., Degiovanni, A., Garlasche, M., et al. (2010). Cyclinac medical accelerators using pulsed C6+/H-2(+) ion sources. J. Instrum., 5, C09004–19pp.
Abstract: Charged particle therapy, or so-called hadrontherapy, is developing very rapidly. There is large pressure on the scientific community to deliver dedicated accelerators, providing the best possible treatment modalities at the lowest cost. In this context, the Italian research Foundation TERA is developing fast-cycling accelerators, dubbed 'cyclinacs'. These are a combination of a cyclotron (accelerating ions to a fixed initial energy) followed by a high gradient linac boosting the ions energy up to the maximum needed for medical therapy. The linac is powered by many independently controlled klystrons to vary the beam energy from one pulse to the next. This accelerator is best suited to treat moving organs with a 4D multipainting spot scanning technique. A dual proton/carbon ion cyclinac is here presented. It consists of an Electron Beam Ion Source, a superconducting isochronous cyclotron and a high-gradient linac. All these machines are pulsed at high repetition rate (100-400 Hz). The source should deliver both C6+ and H-2(+) ions in short pulses (1.5 μs flat-top) and with sufficient intensity (at least 10(8) fully stripped carbon ions per pulse at 300 Hz). The cyclotron accelerates the ions to 120 MeV/u. It features a compact design (with superconducting coils) and a low power consumption. The linac has a novel C-band high-gradient structure and accelerates the ions to variable energies up to 400 MeV/u. High RF frequencies lead to power consumptions which are much lower than the ones of synchrotrons for the same ion extraction energy. This work is part of a collaboration with the CLIC group, which is working at CERN on high-gradient electron-positron colliders.
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Llosa, G., Barrio, J., Cabello, J., Crespo, A., Lacasta, C., Rafecas, M., et al. (2012). Detector characterization and first coincidence tests of a Compton telescope based on LaBr3 crystals and SiPMs. Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. A, 695, 105–108.
Abstract: A Compton telescope for dose monitoring in hadron therapy consisting of several layers of continuous LaBr3 crystals coupled to silicon photomultiplier (SiPM) arrays is under development within the ENVISION project. In order to test the possibility of employing such detectors for the telescope, a detector head consisting of a continuous 16 mm x 18 mm x 5 mm LaBr3 crystal coupled to a SiPM array has been assembled and characterized, employing the SPIROC1 ASIC as readout electronics. The best energy resolution obtained at 511 key is 6.5% FWHM and the timing resolution is 3.1 ns FWHM. A position determination method for continuous crystals is being tested, with promising results. In addition, the detector has been operated in time coincidence with a second detector layer, to determine the coincidence capabilities of the system. The first tests are satisfactory, and encourage the development of larger detectors that will compose the telescope prototype.
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Llosa, G., Barrio, J., Lacasta, C., Callier, S., Raux, L., & de La Taille, C. (2011). First tests in the application of silicon photomultiplier arrays to dose monitoring in hadron therapy. Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res. A, 648, S96–S99.
Abstract: A detector head composed of a continuous LaBr3 crystal coupled to a silicon photomultiplier array has been mounted and tested, for its use in a Compton telescope for dose monitoring in hadron therapy. The LaBr3 crystal has 16 mm x 18 mm x 5 mm size, and it is surrounded with reflecting material in five faces. The SiPM array has 16 (4 x 4) elements of 3 mm x 3 mm size. The SPIROC1 ASIC has been employed as readout electronics. The detector shows a linear behavior up to 1275 keV. The energy resolution obtained at 511 keV is 7% FWHM, and it varies as one over the square root of the energy up to the energies tested. The variations among the detector channels are within 12%. A preliminary measurement of the timing resolution gives 7 ns FWHM. The spatial resolution obtained with the center of gravity method is 1.2 mm FWHM. The tests performed confirm the correct functioning of the detector.
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Roman, F. L., Abler, D., Kanellopoulos, V., Amoros, G., Davies, J., Dosanjh, M., et al. (2013). Hadron therapy information sharing prototype. J. Radiat. Res., 54, 56–60.
Abstract: The European PARTNER project developed a prototypical system for sharing hadron therapy data. This system allows doctors and patients to record and report treatment-related events during and after hadron therapy. It presents doctors and statisticians with an integrated view of adverse events across institutions, using open-source components for data federation, semantics, and analysis. There is a particular emphasis upon semantic consistency, achieved through intelligent, annotated form designs. The system as presented is ready for use in a clinical setting, and amenable to further customization. The essential contribution of the work reported here lies in the novel data integration and reporting methods, as well as the approach to software sustainability achieved through the use of community-supported open-source components.
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