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ANTARES Collaboration(Adrian-Martinez, S. et al), Aguilar, J. A., Bigongiari, C., Dornic, D., Emanuele, U., Gomez-Gonzalez, J. P., et al. (2012). The positioning system of the ANTARES Neutrino Telescope. J. Instrum., 7, T08002–20pp.
Abstract: The ANTARES neutrino telescope, located 40km off the coast of Toulon in the Mediterranean Sea at a mooring depth of about 2475m, consists of twelve detection lines equipped typically with 25 storeys. Every storey carries three optical modules that detect Cherenkov light induced by charged secondary particles (typically muons) coming from neutrino interactions. As these lines are flexible structures fixed to the sea bed and held taut by a buoy, sea currents cause the lines to move and the storeys to rotate. The knowledge of the position of the optical modules with a precision better than 10cm is essential for a good reconstruction of particle tracks. In this paper the ANTARES positioning system is described. It consists of an acoustic positioning system, for distance triangulation, and a compass-tiltmeter system, for the measurement of the orientation and inclination of the storeys. Necessary corrections are discussed and the results of the detector alignment procedure are described.
Keywords: Timing detectors; Detector modelling and simulations II (electric fields, charge transport, multiplication and induction, pulse formation, electron emission, etc); Detector alignment and calibration methods (lasers, sources, particle-beams); Detector control systems (detector and experiment monitoring and slow-control systems, architecture, hardware, algorithms, databases)
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KM3NeT Collaboration(Adrian-Martinez, S. et al), Calvo Diaz-Aldagalan, D., Hernandez-Rey, J. J., Martinez-Mora, J. A., Real, D., Zornoza, J. D., et al. (2014). Deep sea tests of a prototype of the KM3NeT digital optical module. Eur. Phys. J. C, 74(9), 3056–8pp.
Abstract: The first prototype of a photo-detection unit of the future KM3NeT neutrino telescope has been deployed in the deepwaters of the Mediterranean Sea. This digital optical module has a novel design with a very large photocathode area segmented by the use of 31 three inch photomultiplier tubes. It has been integrated in the ANTARES detector for in-situ testing and validation. This paper reports on the first months of data taking and rate measurements. The analysis results highlight the capabilities of the new module design in terms of background suppression and signal recognition. The directionality of the optical module enables the recognition of multiple Cherenkov photons from the same (40)Kdecay and the localisation of bioluminescent activity in the neighbourhood. The single unit can cleanly identify atmospheric muons and provide sensitivity to the muon arrival directions.
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KM3NeT Collaboration(Aiello, S. et al), Alves Garre, S., Calvo, D., Carretero, V., Colomer, M., Corredoira, I., et al. (2020). gSeaGen: The KM3NeT GENIE-based code for neutrino telescopes. Comput. Phys. Commun., 256, 107477–15pp.
Abstract: The gSeaGen code is a GENIE-based application developed to efficiently generate high statistics samples of events, induced by neutrino interactions, detectable in a neutrino telescope. The gSeaGen code is able to generate events induced by all neutrino flavours, considering topological differences between tracktype and shower-like events. Neutrino interactions are simulated taking into account the density and the composition of the media surrounding the detector. The main features of gSeaGen are presented together with some examples of its application within the KM3NeT project. Program summary Program Title: gSeaGen CPC Library link to program files: http://dx.doi.org/10.17632/ymgxvy2br4.1 Licensing provisions: GPLv3 Programming language: C++ External routines/libraries: GENIE [1] and its external dependencies. Linkable to MUSIC [2] and PROPOSAL [3]. Nature of problem: Development of a code to generate detectable events in neutrino telescopes, using modern and maintained neutrino interaction simulation libraries which include the state-of-the-art physics models. The default application is the simulation of neutrino interactions within KM3NeT [4]. Solution method: Neutrino interactions are simulated using GENIE, a modern framework for Monte Carlo event generators. The GENIE framework, used by nearly all modern neutrino experiments, is considered as a reference code within the neutrino community. Additional comments including restrictions and unusual features: The code was tested with GENIE version 2.12.10 and it is linkable with release series 3. Presently valid up to 5 TeV. This limitation is not intrinsic to the code but due to the present GENIE valid energy range. References: [1] C. Andreopoulos at al., Nucl. Instrum. Meth. A614 (2010) 87. [2] P. Antonioli et al., Astropart. Phys. 7 (1997) 357. [3] J. H. Koehne et al., Comput. Phys. Commun. 184 (2013) 2070. [4] S. Adrian-Martinez et al., J. Phys. G: Nucl. Part. Phys. 43 (2016) 084001.
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KM3NeT Collaboration(Aiello, S. et al), Barrios-Marti, J., Calvo, D., Coleiro, A., Colomer, M., Gozzini, S. R., et al. (2018). Characterisation of the Hamamatsu photomultipliers for the KM3NeT Neutrino Telescope. J. Instrum., 13, P05035–17pp.
Abstract: The Hamamatsu R12199-023-inch photomultiplier tube is the photodetector chosen for the first phase of the KM3NeT neutrino telescope. About 7000 photomultipliers have been characterised for dark count rate, timing spread and spurious pulses. The quantum efficiency, the gain and the peak-to-valley ratio have also been measured for a sub-sample in order to determine parameter values needed as input to numerical simulations of the detector.
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KM3NeT Collaboration(Aiello, S. et al), Alves Garre, S., Calvo, D., Carretero, V., Garcia Soto, A., Gozzini, S. R., et al. (2024). Embedded software of the KM3NeT central logic board. Comput. Phys. Commun., 296, 109036–15pp.
Abstract: The KM3NeT Collaboration is building and operating two deep sea neutrino telescopes at the bottom of the Mediterranean Sea. The telescopes consist of latices of photomultiplier tubes housed in pressure-resistant glass spheres, called digital optical modules and arranged in vertical detection units. The two main scientific goals are the determination of the neutrino mass ordering and the discovery and observation of high-energy neutrino sources in the Universe. Neutrinos are detected via the Cherenkov light, which is induced by charged particles originated in neutrino interactions. The photomultiplier tubes convert the Cherenkov light into electrical signals that are acquired and timestamped by the acquisition electronics. Each optical module houses the acquisition electronics for collecting and timestamping the photomultiplier signals with one nanosecond accuracy. Once finished, the two telescopes will have installed more than six thousand optical acquisition nodes, completing one of the more complex networks in the world in terms of operation and synchronization. The embedded software running in the acquisition nodes has been designed to provide a framework that will operate with different hardware versions and functionalities. The hardware will not be accessible once in operation, which complicates the embedded software architecture. The embedded software provides a set of tools to facilitate remote manageability of the deployed hardware, including safe reconfiguration of the firmware. This paper presents the architecture and the techniques, methods and implementation of the embedded software running in the acquisition nodes of the KM3NeT neutrino telescopes. Program summary Program title: Embedded software for the KM3NeT CLB CPC Library link to program files: https://doi.org/10.17632/s847hpsns4.1 Licensing provisions: GNU General Public License 3 Programming language: C Nature of problem: The challenge for the embedded software in the KM3NeT neutrino telescope lies in orchestrating the Digital Optical Modules (DOMs) to achieve the synchronized data acquisition of the incoming optical signals. The DOMs are the crucial component responsible for capturing neutrino interactions deep underwater. The embedded software must configure and precisely time the operation of each DOM. Any deviation or timing mismatch could compromise data integrity, undermining the scientific value of the experiment. Therefore, the embedded software plays a critical role in coordinating, synchronizing, and operating these modules, ensuring they work in unison to capture and process neutrino signals accurately, ultimately advancing our understanding of fundamental particles in the Universe. Solution method: The embedded software on the DOMs provides a solution based on a C-based bare-metal application, operating without a real-time embedded OS. It is loaded into the RAM during FPGA configuration, consuming less than 256 kB of RAM. The software architecture comprises two layers: system software and application. The former offers OS-like features, including a multitasking scheduler, firmware updates, peripheral drivers, a UDP-based network stack, and error handling utilities. The application layer contains a state machine ensuring consistent program states. It is navigated via slow control events, including external inputs and autonomous responses. Subsystems within the application code control specific acquisition electronics components via the associated driver abstractions. Additional comments including restrictions and unusual features: Due to the operation conditions of the neutrino telescope, where access is restricted, the embedded software implements a fail-safe procedure to reconfigure the firmware where the embedded software runs.
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